Biosensors are analytical devices that detect biological substances — enzymes, DNA, proteins, or cells—and convert them into measurable signals. First introduced in 1956 by Leland Clark with the glucose enzyme electrode, biosensors revolutionized medical...
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Before the 1980s, insulin was extracted from cows and pigs, often causing immune reactions in humans. The advent of recombinant DNA technology allowed scientists to produce human insulin using Escherichia coli (E. coli), a...
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Alcoholic fermentation is a natural biological process where microorganisms, primarily yeast, convert sugars like glucose, fructose, or sucrose into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide. It’s the foundation of wine, beer, cider, mead, and many...
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Transcription is the first step in gene expression, where DNA instructions are copied into RNA. In prokaryotes, this process is carried out by RNA polymerase, which reads DNA and synthesises RNA in a highly...
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Transgenic bacteria are genetically engineered microorganisms that carry and express foreign genes. They form the backbone of modern biotechnology, enabling breakthroughs in medicine, industrial fermentation, environmental remediation, and emerging applications like living therapeutics. By...
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CRISPR is no longer just a tool for cutting DNA; it has evolved into a versatile platform for gene regulation, base editing, and advanced therapeutics. Scientists can now activate or repress genes, precisely modify...
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